ABSTRACT
Human civilization can be understood as a long string of episodes of migrations and innovations. Migrations have played a major role in the evolution of human civilization and by studying migrations, which occurred at different intervals, we can understand the history of different regions. In this academic exercise, we have studied the migration of Chinese to the West. We found out, from the scrutiny of history and statistics that China was more prosperous than Europe only during 11the century. Findings also reveal that 14th century was a very significant century, as it gave direction to the civilization development of both China and Europe. In China, an anti-trade and anti-expansion group of Confucians won in Emperor Ming’s court. From that point, China started to look inwards, rather than outwards, which affected its economic and social growth. In Europe, on the other hand, Renaissance started, which shaped social and economic realities. This phase was followed by the Industrial Revolution, which altered, dramatically and radically, economic and social realities. As the European economic system started to improve, it started to yield more lucrative economic opportunities. However, it was the California Gold Rush that excited Chinese to migrate to the United States. Most of the Chinese migrants had the resolve to return to their ancestral homes, which perished with time. We also learn that for Chinese migrants, of mid 18th century, it was difficult to survive because of prejudice against them because of their culture and religion. However, they shaped labor market of US and influenced their culture in a very subtle manner. Today, the Chinese are still migrating to the United States in large numbers, despite economic stability and prosperity in China.
INTRODUCTION
Human civilization is a consequence of migrations and innovations. Humans moved from one place to another in search of food and better-surviving conditions. Wherever humans found plenty of food and favorable conditions to reproduce and prosper, they settled. These settlements expanded and developed in large population centers, which eventually matured and connected with other such centers to give birth to empires.
To this day, humans migrate, to more developed countries, which offer opportunities that are more lucrative. There could be several reasons for migration, such as war; however, mostly, it is the economic opportunity, which excites an individual-family-tribe, to migrate. Most recent mass migrations were a consequence of the war in certain parts of the world. Such migrations are dramatic, spontaneous, and massive. However, migration to another country, for pure economic reasons, is mostly very systematic (Lai 161).
Migration (first) of Chinese, to the West, was both systematic and massive to the standards of that time. Historians have studied this large-scale migration, which took place at intervals, with great interest and devotion. The scrutiny of evidence, by historians and academics, has isolated various factors or reasons, which played a vital role in the migration of Chinese to the West. Some of these factors played an active role, whereas others played a passive role (Young 56).
In this academic exercise, we will discuss and debate these factors, at length, to understand Chinese migration to the west. Also, we will 1) study the pattern of migration, 2) economic opportunities that the Chinese were offered, 3) how they exploited these opportunities, 4) how Chinese settled in West and 4) how they adopted Western culture and influenced it.
HISTORY OF EUROPE AND CHINA
History, of China and Europe, is evidently different because different factors influenced them. For instance, China benefitted from its diverse geography, which allowed different cultures, traditions, and thoughts prevail in it. As we moved from East of China towards West, not only culture changed, but also the realities and this is true to this very day. Also, these cultures and realities were not isolated but connected to other cultures and realities, which influenced its development and expansion during the 13th and 14th centuries.
During the same period, Europe was facing an existential threat from black plague, which killed almost one-third of its total population. This event adversely affected Europe’s economy and other realities. However, it gave birth to the Renaissance, which would give a new direction to its civilization evolution (Cohn 99).
From the study of the history China and Europe, it becomes plain that 14th century gave direction to civilization development/evolution of both Europe and China. In China, the anti-trade Confucian faction won in Ming’s court, which put to end Chinese expansion. In Europe, the period of Renaissance has begun, which would follow up by the Industrial Revolution. It was during the Industrial Revolution; European powers truly started to explore new lands and expand their empires. Also, this was the period, when systematic migrations started to occur from East to West (Wright 125).
Before this migration occurred, West was learning about East (in general) and China (in particular) through its explorers, who was providing apocryphal accounts of their travels of the East. For instance, Macro Polo, a merchant, and an explorer provided a very colorful detail of his travel to China, which excited Europeans and European powers regarding China. It is also evident that details, regarding China, were initially made available through the accounts of Marco Polo and such explorers. These accounts were of that period when China was expanding. However, China started to suffer because of its anti-trade and anti-exploration/expansion policy and eventually Western powers, such as British developed influence over China (Lai 152).
Since there is limited evidence regarding the prosperity of China in comparison to Europe; therefore, it is hard to deduce which region was more prosper. As per one recent study, only during the 11th century, China was more prosper. After Opium War, its social-economic-political system declined further, yielding opportunities and incentives for Chinese to migrate to the West (The Economist).
CHINESE MIGRATION TO THE WEST
Immigration after the Civil War was on the rise in the United States from 1870 to 1900. More than 12 million immigrants moved to the U.S, mostly foreign-born than the ones that had resided in the country for nearly 70 years. Where most of the Chinese immigrants migrated to Europe in countries like Ireland, Germany, and England, a large number of other Chinese immigrants also moved to the United States between 1849 and 1882, right after the beginning of the California Gold Rush. Most of the Chinese Immigrants that worked for the California Gold Rush returned to their country with whatever they had earned and saved, whereas, the majority of the immigrants came to the U.S to look for better life opportunities, and to settle there permanently.
The Chinese Immigrants that returned home were mostly single men who could not stay in the United States. The Chinese Immigrants were first impressed by the Gold Rush in California, but after working for others they then ended up opening their laundries, restaurants, and other customer services, and today the Chinese occupies a large number of businesses in the United States. After the Gold Rush in California, the Chinese immigrants worked on agriculture, railroads throughout the west and they were paid a fraction of what European settlers were being paid (Young 72).
Most of the Chinese immigrants arrived in the United States through using a “Credit Ticket” with which their passage was paid for before their arrival by an American Businessman leaving them indebting for a period and work. Most of the Chinese Immigrants were single men, and very few traveled with children and wives. Most of the Chinese Immigrants that immigrated to the United States were Single men, and the ones that travelled with women and children were quite less, making women only 5% of the Chinese Immigrants in the U.S till 1890. The Chinese immigrants had to face a lot of racism, discrimination, and violence from the American Settlers, and they were prohibited from being official citizens of the country since 1970. Also, the Chinese immigrant miners had to pay special taxes to work at the Gold Rush, and despite such hardships, the Chinese continued arriving in the U.S to seek a better life and opportunities leaving their family members behind. There was a law passed by the government, which forbade more Chinese immigrants from coming to the U.S, only then the flow of immigrants stopped (Cohn 110).
CHINESE IMMIGRANTS TO THE UNITED STATES
The Chinese Immigrants to the United States today are the third largest group of foreign-born followed by Indians and Mexicans. The Chinese immigration into the United States consisted of two waves following both the World Wars. And the population has increased rapidly since the 1980s, making Chinese Immigrants almost 2.3 million till 2017. Chinese students are largely enrolled in the U.S universities for higher education, and they receive the second largest sponsorships for employment through H-1b visas. Compared to the immigrants from other countries the Chinese are better educated, and more likely to be employed by prestigious companies (Lai 143)
. The Chinese have been successful in their effort to create a cultural and social influence throughout the U.S, especially in cities like San Francisco, where they provide services ranging from education, places of worship, medical facilities and several other things. The Chinese were also denied the right to vote, and hold state employment, in 1879. In 1882, the Congress had to pass a law that forbade more Chinese Immigrants from entering into the U.S for ten years, the Chinese that was stuck in the U.S had to work at low wages. The Chinese have suffered quite a lot as immigrants in the United States for decades, but today they are a part of the backbone of the United States economy, and they hold good positions as useful citizens) (Wright 119).
CHINESE MIGRANTS IN EUROPE
Chinese migrants can be seen all over Europe today. Even though compared to the United States, Europe still has less Chinese migrants, but they can be seen running their businesses or studying in most of the European countries today. The first wave of the Chinese migrants dates back to 1839, during the First Opium War (Cohn 80) . China was forced to open its borders to western traders. Later, Honk Kong was an established British Colony in 1841. However, the Chinese were still not allowed to go abroad until the 1860s. The earliest Chinese migrants, mostly seamen settled in different parts of Europe, majorly the Netherlands, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Later, waves and waves of Chinese migrants were seen largely during the first and the Second World War around 100.000 Chinese workers migrated to Europe, mainly working to dig trenches in Belgium and France, and most of them had to leave after their work was done. After the World War 1, the colonial connections between the countries became relevant which caused massive waves of Chinese migrants to come to Europe following the World War 2. Many of the Chinese that moved from Hong Kong into the United Kingdom and nearby countries ended up opening businesses such as restaurants and health facilities.
After the communist economy of Mao Zedong in China, the migration of the Chinese was heavily controlled making it impossible for Chinese migrants to move to Europe with ease. The wave of Chinese Migration to Europe again accelerated in after 1970, when the Communist Party made some economic reforms, opening more policies for the citizens, and forming diplomatic relationships with other countries, and such reforms led to the huge migration of the Chinese into Europe. Europe has been lenient about the Chinese Migration, in the recent years, as the Chinese Migrants have been a great asset in helping boost their economy; they have recognized the economic benefits the Chinese provide (Kanazawa 799).
Now Europe has become a popular destination and a place for the Chinese, and each day more migrants are pouring in all over Europe, opening up businesses. In 2007 there were 2.15 million Chinese Migrants in Europe compared to that of 600,000 in 1980, making Europe come second in the growth rate behind African countries. The Chinese migration to Europe if compared to the U.S and west Europe is still lower; however, Spain, Hungary, and Italy have been quite open about the Chinese Migrants through their Regularization programs. And recently more Chinese Migrants are also migrating to Hungary. Chinese Migrants have made Europe a more diverse place, and they have been quite resourceful for most of the European regions (Gee, Takeuchi and Gotto 222).
COEXISTENCE
From the available evidence, regarding the settling of Chinese migrants in Europe and the United States, we learn that though the coexistence with White Americans, of Chinese migrants, was not violent; however, it was also not very pleasant. European settlers looked-down upon the immigrants. The Chinese migrants, most of who came to the United States during the late 1840s, were peasants, who left China because of poor economic conditions and political turmoil (Kanazawa 789).
The Chinese were not truly welcomed by European settlers, because of the xenophobia of European settlers. The Chinese not only had to work harder than the European settlers, but also they had to live in extremely poor conditions. They settled on the outskirts of cities, where they tried to main their culture and traditions. As European settlers, in the United States, considered Chinese racially and culturally inferior; therefore, the opportunities to progress limited drastically. However, this prejudice against Chinese and their culture made Chinese community a well-knitted community, which was determined to preserve its culture and value (Gee, Takeuchi and Gotto 215).
We also learn, from the systematic scrutiny of history and literature, about Chinese arrival and settlement in Europe and America that because of the religion and culture, of Chinese, they stood out from the rest and that adversely affected their economic, social and political conditions and prospects. Also, because most of the Chinese believed that they would eventually leave the United States for their native villages, they initially did not try to mingle with the dominant community constituted by European settlers. Instead, they kept their queue, which suggested that did not intend to live/stay permanently in the United States. However, as their resolve of going back home started to perish, for various reasons, they started to participate more actively in the American social system, which was rapidly evolving during the late 18th and early 19thcenturies (Wang192).
During the same period, the concept of Social Darwinism was becoming prevalent, and it adversely started to affect immigrants, who professed different religion and had a different culture than the European settlers.
CULTURE AND INFLUENCE
Culture, tradition, norms, and habits, of Chinese immigrants, subtly influenced American culture and gave direction to America’s social evolution. For instance, the Chinese were workaholic and did not shy from taking up odd-jobs. The intensive work they did and the conditions in which they lived surprised and shocked many (Wang 195). Also, the Chinese workers tend to do most of the work by and hardly ever used machines to perform a task. This passion and commitment positively influenced labor markets of the United States, as employers now demanded workers, who could work for longer hours at lower wages, as Chinese workers. As wages decreased and productivity increased, American producers were able to produce more at lower-cost, making their products more competitive. It is an economic fact that when wages dwindle, Production increase. Therefore, in a very subtle manner, Chinese labor was shaping the labor market in certain parts of the United States (Cali-Sphere).
As Chinese ceremonies and traditions were unique, they naturally aroused curiosity among average Americans (European Settlers). Some of these curious individuals attempted to understand Chinese culture, religion, and traditions, which allowed Chinese culture and religious philosophies to spread-out. When Chinese notions, perceptions, and precepts amalgamated with prevalent notions and concepts, it produced unique notions and precepts, which were slightly different from the previous. However, this entire process was slow and very difficult (Kanazawa 793)
Despite all the hardships and prejudice against the Chinese community, the community prospered (gradually), and it was able to positively influence economic and social evolutions of the West, especially in the United States. The foremost reason for such attitude, of the Chinese community, was that it lived in far stern conditions in China (presumably). The harvest was small, the income generated by average household was very little, and there were very few economic and social opportunities. However, in the United States, opportunities were far more in comparison and Chinese could follow their traditions, as per their will (Young 69).
CURRENT PACE OF MIGRATION TO WEST
We have already established that economic opportunities are the real reason or the incentive, for the migrants to move to Europe and America. European and American economies are large, and they yield highly lucrative economic opportunities periodically. For instance, the size of the American economy is largest in the world and therefore, it can produce very attractive socioeconomic opportunities. Also, for a very long period, the United States deliberately attract human-resource from all around the world, which gives a competitive edge to its economy against the other economies. It is also true for the European economies (Western European Economies), which are robust and huge. They, too, attract academics and human resource (for its economic/corporate system) so that the size of their economies may expand and quality of their economies may improve (Dot Chinese Online). In the last three decades, the Chinese economy has also swelled at a phenomenal rate, which has brought economic stability and prosperity in the country.
However, we learn from the statistics that many Chinese are still migrating to the United States. In the year 2014, most of the Asian immigrants came to the US from China. It suggests that despite the economic prosperity and stability, the Chinese are moving to Europe and the United States. Therefore, this recent/current migration must have reasons other than economic. As per some studies, because of social and political reasons too, the Chinese are moving to Europe and America (West). However, the size of migration is not large, but rather moderate (Wright 115).
According to the statistics, around 2.1 million Chinese live in the United States, and their migration rate in the United States had increased since 1969 when the United States altered its visa-policy. In Europe too, a considerable number of Chinese live. However, the largest Chinese populations are in England, Italy, and France. The pace, of migration to Europe, is slow and the size not even modest, as Chinese immigrants prefer a United States (according to the statistics).
CAUSES
When Chinese immigrated to West (American and Europe), in the 1850s, they left their home country for economic reasons (partly political and social). However, academics are still discerning the cause of Chinese immigration since the 1990s. It is because Chinese economy started to perform exceptionally after in the early 90s and it started to swell at a phenomenal rate. It brought economic stability and prosperity in Eastern China and its port cities. Therefore, this prosperity must have reduced Chinese immigration to the West; however, it did not. The reasons, of immigration to West, could be more political and social than economic (Gee, Takeuchi and Gotto 217).
The other reason could be those economic opportunities, which Chinese economy is yielding, is not as good or lucrative than the economic opportunities, which American and European economies are producing. There is a qualitative difference between the Chinese economy and Western economies (America and Europe), which could be the reason of high-rate of migration to Europe and Americas. If that is true, highly talented, human resource and intellectuals must be migrating to Europe, which must be a concern for China (Wang 201).
The Chinese political system is considered strict and oppressive, which could be one of the reasons for the Chinese to migrate in such huge numbers. Mostly the economic reasons and incentives excite or encourage individuals to leave their country; however, political reasons also push people out of their native countries. In case of China, there could be multiple factors that may be affecting the current migration to West. The foremost reason is still the economic reason, which is powerful and relevant to all the factors and reasons (Carlson).
CONCLUSION
It is very apparent that because of poor economic and social conditions, of China in the mid-18th century, Chinese started to migrate to the West. However, it was the California Gold Rush, which excited Chinese to leave their ancestral lands and move to America. We also learn that early Chinese immigrants had a strong resolve to go back to the country of their origin. However, gradually, this resolve started to perish.
The Chinese found themselves in a difficult environment, as their culture and traditions were looked-down. They lived on the outskirts, and the locals (European Settlers) were apprehensive regarding them and their culture. However, the attitude towards Chinese gradually changed, which allowed Chinese-Americans to participate in society, economic and political systems more boldly and positively.
The Chinese, who have settled in the West, is contributing immensely to the economy and political-social system. Their role and influence have increased in last hundred years. Also, during their time in the west, they have subtly influenced the culture and shaped labor market/economy.
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